The radius of the circle is the reflection coefficient G , where the radius to the edge is 1. Activity points. Access a free differential stripline impedance calculator tool for PCB transmission lines. C is the capacitance in farads (F),. The microstrip calculator determines the width and length of a microstrip line for a. This tool calculates the matching network necessary to terminate a line of the specified characteristic impedence (Z o) in a specific complex load impedence (R L + jX L) at a specified frequency. Remember, prolonged exposure to high volumes can be harmful. Coaxial Cable Impedance Calculator. For example, a 1 Watt power amplifier (source) optimized for use in a 50 Ohm system will. 2. Enter the source characteristic impedance and the load impedance then press "Calculate" below. 2-side PCB, one side with signals, the other with GND. For making a phasing harness to match two 50 ohms antennas to a 50 ohm its already figured out. The normalized impedance z L = Z L /50 ohms =. ω = 2πf is the angular frequency in rad/s, . The Pythagorean theorem is written: c 2 = a 2 + b 2. This technique doesn’t work for wide band requirements, but is a simple way to achieve this at a specific. Useful converters and calculators. The standard impedance choice for systems requiring low attenuation is 75 Ohm. Please note that the generator's output impedance is NOT selectable - is is ALWAYS 50 ohms. You’ve probably also seen some calculators. 4 j Plot this at point z1. 02 Amps. Γ0 = Z01 − ZS Z01 + ZS Γn = Zn + 1 − Zn Zn + 1 + Zn ΓN = ZL − Z0N ZL + Z0N. The SWR is given by the ratio of the load impedance to the characteristic impedance of the line (or the reciprical, if the result is less than 1. 54 + 0. Most RF test equipment has 50 ohm output impedance and 50 ohm input impedance. the resulting impedance will be close to 50 Ω (as in the first example, with W = 20 mils). Z PU = Per Unit Impedance. 2), you will lose almost 4 dB (red line). Knowing that its source, directional coupler and receiver are all 50 ohms, the VNA can also calculate the actual impedance in ohms, using this: JLCPCB Impedance Calculator. The characteristic impedance (Z o) of a microstrip transmission line can be calculated using the active calculator or the equations at the bottom of the page. The fact that all our gear is designed and. Both input and output impedance is set to a default value of 50 Ω. The most important are: PCB Material; The PCB material are standardized with different norms. There is also a dielectric material placed above the conductor. also attenuates line noise with a current. 50 Ohms. For this reason, trace width is important in the design of striplines. In schematic, write an equation for port 2 Term Z to be 35 ohms above 400 MHz: Z = if freq < 400 MHz then 50 else 35 endif. 76 x 10-8 Henries, C = 7. 0. IPC 2141 Trace Impedance Calculator The IPC-2141 trace Impedance calculator will help make initial design easier by allowing the user to input basic parameters and get a. When enabled. measurement. Ohms. Most RF Coaxial Cables have an impedance of 50 ohms or 75 ohms. This L1 is equivalent to a short power line of 25m from a low Z distribution transformer to the DUT. If you have a small signal, like video, or receive antenna signals, the graph above shows that the. Assume an amplifier output (generator. Related: resistor calculator Ohm's Law. Set scope probe compensation to 1X. The wave propagates in both directions down the transmission line until the ends are reached. January 16, 2023 by Matt Brown. X c = 1 / 2πfC. This would mean ideally you have 120 degree shift in your Line structure at your center frequency. The Basic Concept of Impedance. The differential pair impedance calculators you'll find online provide a good first estimate of the impedance you can expect for your particular geometry. VSWR / Return Loss Calculator. As the drawing shows, you can use 50 Ω or 75 Ω coax, without any real issues. Following formula can be derived for the characteristic impedance of a parallel wire transmission line: 1. In some cases, users require a custom impedance value. The most common values of coaxial cable impedance are 50 and 75 ohms. Here, my simulation source is a simple AC source (labelled V2, found in the Simulation. What are Impedance Matching Pads? Impedance Matching Pads/networks are used to match circuits with different impedances. The radius of the circle is the reflection coefficient G , where the radius to the edge is 1. The board contains two inner layers of. 7 MHz and the reference impedance is Z 0. The capacitance and inductance values are chosen such that the bias tee has negligible effect on the RF signal at the desired frequency. Think about a pi filter of equal input and output impedance; the circuit gain has to be unity hence, Q factor should be unity basically because: -. 25 x 50 ohms). g. Download the RF Calculator App on Android or iOS devicesThe Pi match impedance matching circuit is used to match the impedance between two points, usually a source and a load. The solution built into the above calculator enforces. Click here to see the user guide of our. The IPC-2141 trace Impedance calculator will help make initial design easier by allowing the user to input basic parameters and get a calculated impedance according to the IPC-2141 standard. Find coefficient of reflection (mag, &. **Note: Like our stripline impedance calculator, all of our RF calculators allow SI prefix input. The routed net looks something similar to the one below. For example, a 50 Ohm line 2 inches long has a capacitance of about 6. Take for instance 1 Ω and 100 Ω in parallel. Output field. 3 predicts Zo to be about 46 Ω, generally consistent withAn antenna tuner doesn’t change the antenna itself so much as changes its impedance to match the transmission line source, for example changing the impedance from 50 ohm to 55. A reasonable assumption for good feedlines, HF bands, and shorter feedlines. g. Both the S-parameter and input impedance are complex numbers (R + jX), where R represents the real component, and the X represents the imaginary component. 50 Ohm Attenuator Calculator. Enter the desired attenuation needed in dB, up to, but not beyond 40. RF & Wireless. If we add to this impedance a 10 pF series capacitor (C 1 = 10 pF), what would be the new impedance and reflection coefficient? Assume that the operating frequency is 211. RF tracks must have an impedance of 50 ohms. I am developing a 4-layer FR-4 board containing a GNSS receiver (L1 + L2). Products. (D) is the outer diameter of coaxial. The default impedance (Z) is 50 ohm, although you can change that to any value. Then to match the antenna, only a series inductor is required. Using the formula, you can calculate the impedance (Z) as follows: Z = 2π * 60 * 0. Enter the nominal impedance of the destination device you will be feeding audio to. Display the answer in ohms. Board. Differential Microstrip Impedance From Zo Calculator. 5. Capacitance – the impedance calculator uses the Impedance value to calculate the capacitance per unit length. Cutoff Frequency, MHz (input1) : Characteristic Impedance, Ohm (input2) : Inductance (L) in Henries (Output1): Capacitance (C) in farads (Output2): Example : INPUTS : Fc =900 MHz, Z0 = 50 Ohm. We will use the Smith Chart to calculate a tuner that matches a 25 ohm resistive load to a 50 ohm transmission line at 100 MHz. 5 or 6. This can be built into a FLEXI-BOX and a transmission line (50 Ohm track) PCB is available which easily adapts for this circuit with two simple. The conversion of volts in dBm is expressed as: P(dBm) = 10 × log10((Vrms2 × 1000) / Z) Where, P(dBm) is Power in dBm. Read any guide on PCB design, and you’ll see mentions of 50 Ohm impedance, track widths required to reach said impedance, and how it all relates to the stackup. The Tee attenuator. In the ZL box, type 50 Ω. It’s not an arbitrary number; there are good technical reasons for. The Pi match circuit is so named because the circuit topology can resemble a pi symbol. Common consideration. Classes for 50 and 100-ohm traces. What is the total ohms in a parallel circuit? To find the total resistance (total ohms) in a parallel circuit, you use the reciprocal formula: 1 / R_total = 1 / R1. Overview. 5:1. By combining these two previous equations, we can compute the power by just knowing the resistance and the voltage or any two of the three main electrical variables (V, I, R). When describing impedance, there are several terms that you should aware of. WhereNothing, until we convert it to reactance. It is a theoretical thing. Now remember what Characteristic Impedance means as a transmission line. 0. In the forthcoming simulation, I want to match a 50 Ohm driver to a 70 Ohm antenna, so the impedance of my matching network plus the load needs to be 50 Ohms. However, hatch ground planes or co-planar wave guides without a ground plane might work. Figure 3. If the round-trip time is short enough, reflections may die down quickly enough to not pose a. The Smith Chart is your friend. See full list on allaboutcircuits. The inductive reactance in ohms will also be calculated. The cct. f is the frequency in hertz (Hz),. 4. d d = coaxial cable inner diameter. This requires you to route the traces farther apart in order to hit a standard 50 Ohm impedance goal. shows the desired circuit. While commonly constructed using printed circuit boards, this structure can also be built using other materials as long as the…Inductance of the inductor (L) H. 90 ohm when the core is only 25um. You want to set R T to equal the differential characteristic impedance of 100 Ohms, so there is no reflection. Left-Hand Circuit: 50 ohm line-to-line, no chassis connection 5. Give this class a name (100 ohms in our case). In contrast, a 600-Ohm line matched to the antenna presents a 12:1 impedance ratio to the common 50-Ohm system, and matching may be restricted to the use of an ATU. EXAMPLE: INPUTS: Physical Length (meter) INPUT1 = 0. Note that the magnitude of the impedance of an ideal inductor is equal to its reactance. A 50 ohm input impedance is a concept. At very high frequencies, certain 75 Ohm cables work better than 50 Ohm. This tool helps you create a matching circuit so that optimal power transfer occurs between unmatched loads. f is the frequency in hertz (Hz), . g. Calculates the absolute load impedance, reflection coefficient, VSWR, return loss and mismatch loss of a load. 0 value of the line to this point on the chart—50 Ω for a 50-Ω line, for example. The microstrip calculator determines the width and length of a microstrip line for a given characteristic impedance (Zo) and electrical length or vice versa. Enter the source characteristic impedance and the load impedance then press "Calculate" below. ) In contrast, a 600-Ohm line matched to the antenna presents a 12:1 impedance. Let us now route the traces – One with 10 mils width and the other with 20 mils width. where X c is the capacitive reactance. Impedance is a complex quantity that characterizes how a component, like an inductor, resists the flow of AC current. What we often call the 50-ohm system impedance is usually an engineering compromise between 53. Z o = Characteristic impedance of the microstrip in ohms (Ω). Common consideration. C is the capacitance in farads (F),. #5. As other answers have said, there's numerous online calculators and high priced tools available to help you do that. Voltage (V)From here, we can see that there are specific stack-ups where a CPW and a microstrip/stripline will have 50 Ohm impedance and the same trace width, even though the ground clearance is quite close clearance to the trace in the CPW. This tool converts Power in dBm to Voltage. This 2 Vpp output is applied to the internal 50 ohm series-matching resistor. The graph below compares the impedance of a real microstrip on an 8-layer board vs. It's rated at a low 50 ohms impedance but a paltry 83. Careful readers will note that Eq. As can be seen in the following graphs, the only time a 1:1 choke-balun accomplishes a 1:1 transformation is when it sees 50 ohms at its output. There is also a selection of 50 Ohm RF connectors available. 6), the impedance will be approximately 50 Ohms. Basic Emitter Amplifier Model. ω = 2πf is the angular frequency in rad/s, . 0. Conductors: Wire pair over ground plane or wire pair, minimum length 6. This will give us S11 and S21, which are two of the important parameters for this impedance matching network. Vrms is the Voltage in volts. Other useful impedances are 112. The conversion of a 50Ω-referenced S-parameter to 75Ω begins with equation 1. Engineers were designing air-filled coaxial cables for radio transmitters designed to output kW worth of power. 62 $$angle$$ 82. This 3-phase power calculator determines the active, apparent, and reactive power from known RMS voltage, current, and power factor for a symmetrical three-phase system with a balanced load. The VSWR/return loss calculator from Pasternack will find VSWR, return Loss, mismatch loss, and the reflection coefficient given any one of the listed input types. 5 Ohms. 7 dB. This means the cables need to be designed. To calculate impedance, calculate the resistance and reactance of the circuit, then label resistance as R and reactance as X. The electrical wavelength is determined from the velocity factor of the cable. NETCALC uses three "environment" parameters -. It can be written as: R = V/I. 25 , Antenna frequency INPUT2 = 600 MHz, OUTPUTS: Radiation Resistance of halfwave dipole OUTPUT1 = 80 Ohm , Radiation Resistance of electrically short dipole OUTPUT2 = 49. The 75 ohm version of a 50 ohm connector (at least for the SMA, N and BNC types that I've studied) raises the impedance in two ways, while keeping the mechanical interface identical. 50 ohm output is pretty much standard for function generators, as it is a match for the 50 ohm coaxial cables that are often used to interconnect equipment. Coaxial Cable: A common type of coaxial cable has a characteristic impedance of 50 ohms. The generalised formula for the input impedance of any circuit is ZIN = VIN/IIN. The ratio of signal reflected back from the load to the forward signal absorbed by the load in dB is called return loss. Q = √ ( (R2/R1) – 1) where R2 > R1. Characteristic Impedance (Ohms): Effective Dielectric Constant: The microstrip impedance calculator shown above uses Wadell’s equations for microstrip impedance, which can be found in the seminal textbook Transmission Line Design Handbook. φ = 0° if 1/2πfC = 2πfL and R = 0. Why these values? One explanation is that the value of 50 ohms was selected because a coaxial cable with polyethylene dielectric with relative permittivity ε r = 2. Display the answer in ohms. Try it yourself - put in 40, 50, and 60 ohms, and calculate how much power goes to the load in each case. I wanted to use Altium to calculate the width of the trace automatically, so that it had a 50 Ohm impedance. So, the impedance of the coil in. See why the current group of simple via impedance calculators produce incorrect results. I use FR-4, so H=1. Right-click on ‘Net classes’ >> click on ‘Add classes. 75 ohms is quite close, and 140 ohms through a λ 4 λ 4 of 75 ohms comes out to be 40 ohms. Desired Loudness: Adjust the loudness to your preference. Video signals usually are required to be routed at 75 Ohm impedance if they go off-board. This calculator helps you calculate the characteristic impedance of a coaxial cable given its dimensions. 50 Watt 50, 25, 12. Try our differential stripline impedance calculator, built based on Wadell’s equations. S11 Linear to dB. 1- Assume the load is 100 + j50 connected to a 50 ohm line. In this ideal scenario, no power is lost, and the VSWR value is 1 : 1 , which signifies 100% transmission of the input power from the source. Understanding the total speaker ohms is essential to ensure compatibility with your amplifier. The user only needs to enter the attenuation in decibels (dB) and the given characteristic impedance of the transmission lines to be matched. To understand how this all feeds into the RF unit converter, we have to first talk about AC and DC. 1. In this case, sqrt (50*140) = 83 ohms. Radio Amateur. The PCB Impedance Calculator in Altium Designer. V - voltage. 675 ohms. where . This antenna operates at 1. The reflection coefficients at each boundary in Figure 7. The exact number will be a product of a number of factors that define the optimum trace width. ω = 2πf is the angular frequency in rad/s,. The maximum power transfer from source to load occurs when the source impedance is equal the load impedance. 062" double sided finished board The numbers work out like this. For example, if you connect a 100 ohm load to the NanoVNA, then the reflected voltage will be about 0. Signal generators are usually rated in dBm output (for 50 ohm systems) which can be converted to peak volts, as needed. g. The gap changes to retain these ratios for different 50 Ohm cables. a) Reduces the diameter of the pin through the connector, while keeping the diameter of the mating part. Also, the VSWR is a result of things getting reflected back:Microstrip lines have three parameters that we can change to achieve 50 ohm impedance: Due to design constraints, there is only one parameter (track width,) left to achieve 50 ohm. An embedded microstrip is a microstrip transmission line or flat conductor separated from the ground place via a dielectric material. I use FR-4, so H=1. For speakers in series, you can find the power each speaker will get even if they have different Ohm ratings. Q is the quality factor of a parallel RLC circuit (dimensionless),. 33 of the transmitted voltage, and this leads to a 2:1 VSWR, in a 50 ohm system. RF tracks must have an impedance of 50 ohms. 1-2 GHz is kind of a messy middle ground where you might get. The history of 50 Ohm impedance goes back to the late 1920s/early 1930s, when the telecom industry was in its infancy. It supports both balanced and unbalanced lines. Enter Zo - source characteristic impedance in Ω S11 - either linear or dB value can be used The tool will calculate the absolute value of the load impedance ZL in ohm. Write an equation to vary the Term port impedance. Access technical papers, white papers, calculators, tools and more for circuit laminates, prepreg and bonding materials. You only need to know the resistance, the inductance, and the capacitance values connected in series or parallel. The 60 ohms comes from sqrt(73 * 50) and an electrical 1/4 wavelength will convert one impedance to the other. Thus, you can choose the 50-ohm as a standard in the case of air dielectric. Enter the inductance and frequency values, select the units and click or tap the Calculate button. Although you'll typically see a 34 Ohm or 40 Ohm single-ended trace impedance value in many designs, some modules will support as high as 50 or 60 Ohms single-ended impedance. (Default Values Below Usually Work Well For Line to Mic Attenuation) Input Impedance (Source impedance) (600 ohms for modern rigs)A characteristic impedance formula will only be specific to a given circuit, and it can be calculated from that circuit’s various elements and components. It is chosen for its balance between signal loss and power handling capability in RF applications. Our RF and microwave calculators and converters will provide the figures you need for your radio frequency engineering needs. 1 mm trace spacing chosen in your design. So, the driver drives into 50 Ohms (100 // 100). The formula for calculating the characteristic impedance of a differential pair involves several factors: Differential Pair Impedance (Z_diff) = (2 × Z_single) / sqrt (1 + (2d / s)) Where: Differential Pair Impedance (Z_diff) represents the characteristic impedance of the differential pair, typically measured in ohms (Ω). 25 normalized to ZT, or 12. Following is the list of useful converters and calculators. Gilmour, Jr. 2-side PCB, one side with signals, the other with GND. The fact that all our gear is designed and specified to this characteristic impedance makes it easier for us to get close, or at least as close as we can, to an ideal system. The wave propagates in both directions down the transmission line until the ends are reached. 5GHz and needs a 50 ohm impedance line. The 50 ohms appeared as a nominal impedance of coaxial cables during work on early radars and it is a compromise. High-speed designs carry a requirement for controlled impedance, crosstalk control, and the need for interplane capacitance. L is the inductance in henries (H),. Select "Unequal impedances" in the "Circuit type" box. The capacitance of a capacitor C is. Useful converters and calculators. 25 provides minimum signal loss at about 50 ohms and at the same time it can carry large power for a given. The impedance of the line is mainly depending on your PCB characteristics. Tesla coil generates high voltage by two reasons: 1. Angular Frequency ω= rad/s. This technique doesn’t work for wide band requirements, but is a simple way to achieve this at a. How do you calculate ohms for speakers? You don’t calculate ohms for speakers; ohms are a measure of a speaker’s impedance, which is determined by its design and the materials used. 5mm, T=0. This page allows you to calculate the impedance required for a 1/4 wave (electrical) section of line. You can then calculate the length in degrees for nearby frequencies with reasonable accuracy. Antenna length 2. 25/. Pi-Matching Impedance Network Calculator. X = The total reactance in ohms = XL – XC. The circuit got its name because the inductor and the capacitor form a Pi symbol (see schematic below). The impedance of an inductor is dependent on its. Smooth Line vs. g. Incidentally, the trace thickness parameter does have a significant effect. Simulate and then insert a list ofThe purpose is to stabilize variations in line impedance using L1 which raises the impedance to above 50 Ohms above 150kHz for conducted emissions between 150kHz and 30MHz. This tool helps you create a matching circuit so that optimal power transfer occurs between unmatched loads. Visit to learn more about our other electrical engineering tools. ) always provide better loss than a 75 Ohm cable. V - voltage. In fact, striplines often make components such as band-pass filter's more accurately, with more symmetric roll-off and no lower cutoff frequency. These calculators should be avoided for high-speed design and RF interconnects. It is the expected *load* impedance that is selectable. While this will be balanced, it won't match the higher impedance balanced feedlines, which are in the range of 300-600 Ωs. Twisted pairs are used with balanced signals. Therefore, if you want to deliver the most RF power from your 50-ohm source to your antenna - voila, only a 50 ohm. The outer/inner surface ratio across the gap increases for 75 Ohm Cable for TV. 50 Ohm power dividers / coaxial splitters from Pasternack come in 2 Way, 3 Way, 4 Way, 6 Way, 8 Way or 12 Way output port configurations. Suppose you have a coil with an inductance (L) of 0. Example: Three equal inductive loads with a power factor 0. As others have mentioned, for a 50 Ohm microstrip, 62 thou above a plane, a 120 thou trace for FR4 is about right. Index: Aerial Calculations : Balun Theory. The impedance of an inductor is dependent on its. This calculator can calculate the impedance and propagation delay of the embedded microstrip. When I calculate the necessary values for an LC impedance matching circuit, I end up with extremely high values necessary for capacitance (e. Required Data Entry. The series representation of the circuit in Figure 1. 3 RF Impedance Closely following the evolution of air lines as absolutevalue in ohms, referenced to 50 ohms. As other answers have said, there's numerous online calculators and high priced tools available to help you do that. Sierra circuits have an online one for coplanar. 75 mm=30 mil). When RF engineers think about the impedance of their project’s transmission lines, they may automatically assume that these lines all have a nominal impedance of 50 ohms (Ω). space. to the working (characteristic) impedance of the antenna system – 50 Ohms in most ham situations. Z o. You can use this formula for individual resistors in a parallel circuit. 35 Ohm , Radiation Resistance of hertizian dipole OUTPUT3 = 197. The shunt capacitor needs to transform the parallel 1 kΩ to a series 50 Ω resistor, which means this RC combination needs to have a loaded Q of 4. Matching T Attenuator Calculator. You can try a home made one, but you will never obtain so good results. Z is the impedance of the circuit, typically measured in ohms (Ω Ω). Characteristic impedance is purely a function of the capacitance and. A twisted-pair cable is simply two wires that are twisted together so as to reduce radiated EMI (electromagnetic interference) and mitigate the effects of received EMI. 8 Mils and the FR-4 dielectric of 3. 26mm and L=22. Further the Smithchart will also changed to 75 ohm impedance. So there is a point lie inside the surface of radiating patch where the imped-ance is 50Ω; the simplest method for impedance matching is to locate the position of 50 Ω points and connect the feed probe at this point. High-quality circuit boards as prototype and series at reasonable prices. So the phrase "minimum loss pad" is a cruel joke indeed!Coaxial Cable Impedance (Ohms) Impedance is the amount of resistance waves moving through the coaxial cable encounters. D D = coaxial cable outer diameter. A transformer turns ratio calculator; calculates the turns ratio needed to match a given primary impedance to a given secondary impedance. Following equation or formula is used for Microstrip Width Calculator. To Calculate voltage from dBm enter the value in P (dBms) and hit V (voltage) button. The Ohm's law formula can be used to calculate the resistance as the quotient of the voltage and current. This increases the ratio outer/inner over. So 50 ohm cables are intended to be used to carry power and voltage, like the output of a transmitter. There. The second major factor which affects impedance is the distance from trace to the nearest plane. Attenuation. With the Multi-CB impedance calculator, you can calculate the approximate impedance dimensioning of your PCB / high frequency circuit board. 2361E+04. You would like to measure the input impedance of your circuit with a 50 ohm network analyze. My Siglent only has 50 ohm and Hi-Z. You are correct that to put a 5W rms sine wave into 50Ω you need almost 45vpp. This characteristic impedance is close to the desired 50-Ohm impedance, so the example can proceed with the design using these microstrip lines. For a pure capacitor of capacitance C Farads, the impedance ZC = 1/jωC Ohms. Enter the desired attenuation needed in dB, up to, but not beyond 40. Write an equation to vary the Term port impedance. If the source is monitored with a high impedance-measuring instrument -V an oscilloscope with a 1 M-ohm input, for example, it would produce very nearly 2 Vpp – even though the output indicator on the instrument indicates 1 Vpp. Just assume it's 50 ohms and has no loss. XL (ohm. Each pair is measured back-to-back; that is, the high-impedance windings are directly connectedZ = 138 * log (D/d) / Sqrt (p r) = 138 * log (1. Such a circuit will deliver an exact cutoff frequency of. Therefore,Here, we know the value of Z0 is the source impedance at the network input (50 Ohms), and we need to calculate Znetwork, which is the input impedance of the network (in other words, the network + load impedance). Class creation for controlled impedance routing using Altium Designer. In practice, we will never have a perfect, ideal system. We recommend the software from Polar Instruments if you want to get exact impedance calculation. Draw a circle through this point around the center. Above 5 GHz, you'd generally want to carefully design your via to maintain impedance matching as well as possible. A via represents such a small part of the overall track impedance that the via can be ignored except for extremely high frequency signals. Simulate and then insert a list ofThe following formulas are used for the calculation: φ = 90° if 1/2πfC < 2πfL. 5 dB/mW and 96 dB/V sensitivity. The Smith Chart is your friend. Not perfect, but it improves the return loss from -6. Z RLC is the RLC circuit impedance in ohms (Ω),. If this were a load on the line, we recognize from transmission-lineThe key design criteria are the magnitudes and relative sizes of the driving generator output impedance and load impedance.